Review on The Multifunctional Role of Flaxseed (Linum Usitatissimum) in Pharmacotherapeutics: Bioactive Constituents and Clinical Evidence
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22270/ajprd.v14i2.1738Abstract
Linum usitatissimum, commonly known as flaxseed, is one of the most important medicinal plants that has been traditionally used for its wide-ranging health and nutritional benefits. Owing to its rich chemical composition, flaxseed has attracted considerable scientific interest as a functional food with significant pharmacological potential. This review summarizes the major bioactive constituents of flaxseed, including alpha-linolenic acid, lignans, dietary fibers, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, and highlights their pharmacological relevance supported by experimental and clinical evidence. Flaxseed exhibits multiple biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, estrogenic and anti-estrogenic, laxative, and antibacterial effects, which collectively contribute to its therapeutic value. Both whole flaxseeds and flaxseed oil are among the richest plant-based sources of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly alpha-linolenic acid, which plays a crucial role in maintaining cardiovascular and metabolic health. Regular consumption of flaxseeds has been associated with the prevention and management of a wide range of chronic disorders, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative conditions, obesity, diabetes mellitus, polycystic ovary syndrome, and gout. In addition, flaxseed intake has been reported to support liver and kidney function and to reduce the risk of diseases associated with oxidative stress. Its phytoestrogen content has shown beneficial effects in alleviating postmenopausal symptoms and improving bone health in osteoporosis. Furthermore, flaxseed has demonstrated positive effects in gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, diarrhea, and constipation, as well as in conditions like dry eye disease and cystic fibrosis. Notably, increasing evidence suggests that flaxseed and its bioactive components may exert protective effects against certain hormone-dependent cancers, particularly breast and prostate cancer, underscoring its importance in preventive and therapeutic healthcare strategies.
Downloads
References
Van Den Driessche JJ, Plat J, Mensink RP. Effects of superfoods on risk factors of metabolic syndrome: a systematic review of human intervention trials. Food Funct. 2018;9(4):1944–66.
Nowak W, Jeziorek M. The Role of Flaxseed in Improving Human Health. Healthcare. 2023 Jan 30;11(3):395.
Fernández-Ríos A, Laso J, Hoehn D, Amo-Setién FJ, Abajas-Bustillo R, Ortego C, et al. A critical review of superfoods from a holistic nutritional and environmental approach. J Clean Prod. 2022 Dec;379:134491.
Ezzat SM, Shouman SA, Elkhoely A, Attia YM, Elsesy MS, El Senousy AS, et al. Anticancer potentiality of lignan rich fraction of six Flaxseed cultivars. Sci Rep. 2018 Jan 11;8(1):544.
Maiuri MC, Zalckvar E, Kimchi A, Kroemer G. Self-eating and self-killing: crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2007 Sept;8(9):741–52.
Bergman Jungeström M, Thompson LU, Dabrosin C. Flaxseed and Its Lignans Inhibit Estradiol-Induced Growth, Angiogenesis, and Secretion of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor in Human Breast Cancer Xenografts In vivo. Clin Cancer Res. 2007 Feb 1;13(3):1061–7.
Lee J, Cho K. Flaxseed sprouts induce apoptosis and inhibit growth in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. Vitro Cell Dev Biol - Anim. 2012 Apr;48(4):244–50.
Scherbakov AM, Stasevich OV, Salnikova DI, Andreeva OE, Mikhaevich EI. Antiestrogenic and antiproliferative potency of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside derivatives on MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Nat Prod Res. 2021 Dec 17;35(24):6099–105.
Buckner AL, Buckner CA, Montaut S, Lafrenie RM. Treatment with flaxseed oil induces apoptosis in cultured malignant cells. Heliyon. 2019 Aug;5(8):e02251.
Pietrofesa R, Chatterjee S, Park K, Arguiri E, Albelda S, Christofidou-Solomidou M. Synthetic Lignan Secoisolariciresinol Diglucoside (LGM2605) Reduces Asbestos-Induced Cytotoxicity in an Nrf2-Dependent and -Independent Manner. Antioxidants. 2018 Mar 2;7(3):38.
Chikara S, Lindsey K, Dhillon H, Mamidi S, Kittilson J, Christofidou-Solomidou M, et al. Enterolactone Induces G1 -phase Cell Cycle Arrest in Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer Cells by Downregulating Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent Kinases. Nutr Cancer. 2017 May 19;69(4):652–62.
Gérard C, Goldbeter A. The balance between cell cycle arrest and cell proliferation: control by the extracellular matrix and by contact inhibition. Interface Focus. 2014 June 6;4(3):20130075.
Ren GY, Chen CY, Chen WG, Huang Y, Qin LQ, Chen LH. The treatment effects of flaxseed-derived secoisolariciresinol diglycoside and its metabolite enterolactone on benign prostatic hyperplasia involve the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016 Dec;41(12):1303–10.
Chen LH, Fang J, Li H, Demark-Wahnefried W, Lin X. Enterolactone induces apoptosis in human prostate carcinoma LNCaP cells via a mitochondrial-mediated, caspase-dependent pathway. Mol Cancer Ther. 2007 Sept 1;6(9):2581–90.
Pietrofesa R, Velalopoulou A, Albelda S, Christofidou-Solomidou M. Asbestos Induces Oxidative Stress and Activation of Nrf2 Signaling in Murine Macrophages: Chemopreventive Role of the Synthetic Lignan Secoisolariciresinol Diglucoside (LGM2605). Int J Mol Sci. 2016 Mar 1;17(3):322.
Yan H, Zhang S, Yang L, Jiang M, Xin Y, Liao X, et al. The Antitumor Effects of α-Linolenic Acid. J Pers Med. 2024 Feb 28;14(3):260.
Kliewer SA, Sundseth SS, Jones SA, Brown PJ, Wisely GB, Koble CS, et al. Fatty acids and eicosanoids regulate gene expression through direct interactions with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1997 Apr 29;94(9):4318–23.
Huang W, Guo X, Wang C, Alzhan A, Liu Z, Ma X, et al. α-Linolenic acid induces apoptosis, inhibits the invasion and metastasis, and arrests cell cycle in human breast cancer cells by inhibiting fatty acid synthase. J Funct Foods. 2022 May;92:105041.
Jiang Y, Yin X, Wu L, Qin Q, Xu J. MAPK/P53-mediated FASN expression in bone tumors. Oncol Lett. 2017 June;13(6):4035–8.
Thompson LU, Chen JM, Li T, Strasser-Weippl K, Goss PE. Dietary Flaxseed Alters Tumor Biological Markers in Postmenopausal Breast Cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2005 May 15;11(10):3828–35.
Duarte S, Shah MA, Sanches Silva A. Flaxseed in Diet: A Comprehensive Look at Pros and Cons. Molecules. 2025 Mar 16;30(6):1335.
Kauser S, Hussain A, Ashraf S, Fatima G, Ambreen, Javaria S, et al. Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum); phytochemistry, pharmacological characteristics and functional food applications. Food Chem Adv. 2024 June;4:100573.
Lowcock EC, Cotterchio M, Boucher BA. Consumption of flaxseed, a rich source of lignans, is associated with reduced breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control. 2013 Apr;24(4):813–6.
Dzuvor CKO, Taylor JT, Acquah C, Pan S, Agyei D. Bioprocessing of Functional Ingredients from Flaxseed. Molecules. 2018 Sept 24;23(10):2444.
Hanif Palla A, Gilani AH. Dual effectiveness of Flaxseed in constipation and diarrhea: Possible mechanism. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015 July;169:60–8.
Soltanian N, Janghorbani M. A randomized trial of the effects of flaxseed to manage constipation, weight, glycemia, and lipids in constipated patients with type 2 diabetes. Nutr Metab. 2018 Dec;15(1):36.
Soltanian N, Janghorbani M. A randomized trial of the effects of flaxseed to manage constipation, weight, glycemia, and lipids in constipated patients with type 2 diabetes. Nutr Metab. 2018 Dec;15(1):36.
Wang Y, Jia XF, Zhang B, Wang ZH, Zhang JG, Huang FF, et al. Dietary Zinc Intake and Its Association with Metabolic Syndrome Indicators among Chinese Adults: An Analysis of the China Nutritional Transition Cohort Survey 2015. Nutrients. 2018 May 8;10(5):572.
Caligiuri SPB, Parikh M, Stamenkovic A, Pierce GN, Aukema HM. Dietary modulation of oxylipins in cardiovascular disease and aging. Am J Physiol-Heart Circ Physiol. 2017 Nov 1;313(5):H903–18.
Parikh M, Netticadan T, Pierce GN. Flaxseed: its bioactive components and their cardiovascular benefits. Am J Physiol-Heart Circ Physiol. 2018 Feb 1;314(2):H146–59.
Li L, Li H, Gao Y, Vafaei S, Zhang X, Yang M. Effect of flaxseed supplementation on blood pressure: a systematic review, and dose–response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Food Funct. 2023;14(2):675–90.
Caligiuri SPB, Austria JA, Pierce GN. Alarming Prevalence of Emergency Hypertension Levels in the General Public Identified by a Hypertension Awareness Campaign. Am J Hypertens. 2017 Mar 1;30(3):236–9.
Caligiuri SPB, Rodriguez-Leyva D, Aukema HM, Ravandi A, Weighell W, Guzman R, et al. Dietary Flaxseed Reduces Central Aortic Blood Pressure Without Cardiac Involvement but Through Changes in Plasma Oxylipins. Hypertension. 2016 Oct;68(4):1031–8.
Caligiuri SPB, Aukema HM, Ravandi A, Guzman R, Dibrov E, Pierce GN. Flaxseed Consumption Reduces Blood Pressure in Patients With Hypertension by Altering Circulating Oxylipins via an α-Linolenic Acid–Induced Inhibition of Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase. Hypertension. 2014 July;64(1):53–9.
Prasad K. A Study on Regression of Hypercholesterolemic Atherosclerosis in Rabbits by Flax Lignan Complex. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2007 Dec;12(4):304–13.
Whayne TF. Defining the Role of PCSK9 Inhibitors in the Treatment of Hyperlipidemia. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2016 Apr;16(2):83–92.
Gonsalves H, Dos Santos AF, Azevedo LH, Corrêa L. Immunohistochemical expression of survivin in oral biopsies taken with surgical laser compared to scalpel. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2025 May;139(5):e131.
Basch E, Bent S, Collins J, Dacey C, Hammerness P, Harrison M, et al. Flax and Flaxseed Oil (Linum usitatissimum): A Review by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. J Soc Integr Oncol. 2007;05(03):92.
Bhathena SJ, Ali AA, Haudenschild C, Latham P, Ranich T, Mohamed AI, et al. Dietary Flaxseed Meal is More Protective Than Soy Protein Concentrate Against Hypertriglyceridemia and Steatosis of the Liver in an Animal Model of Obesity. J Am Coll Nutr. 2003 Apr;22(2):157–64.
Kristensen M, Jensen MG, Aarestrup J, Petersen KE, Søndergaard L, Mikkelsen MS, et al. Flaxseed dietary fibers lower cholesterol and increase fecal fat excretion, but magnitude of effect depend on food type. Nutr Metab. 2012;9(1):8.
Thakur G, Mitra A, Pal K, Rousseau D. Effect of flaxseed gum on reduction of blood glucose and cholesterol in type 2 diabetic patients. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Jan;60(sup6):126–36.
Haggans CJ, Hutchins AM, Olson BA, Thomas W, Martini MC, Slavin JL. Effect of Flaxseed Consumption on Urinary Estrogen Metabolites in Postmenopausal Women. Nutr Cancer. 1999 Mar;33(2):188–95.
Chang VC, Cotterchio M, Boucher BA, Jenkins DJA, Mirea L, McCann SE, et al. Effect of Dietary Flaxseed Intake on Circulating Sex Hormone Levels among Postmenopausal Women: A Randomized Controlled Intervention Trial. Nutr Cancer. 2019 Apr 3;71(3):385–98.
Rehman A, Saeed A, Kanwal R, Ahmad S, Changazi SH. Therapeutic Effect of Sunflower Seeds and Flax Seeds on Diabetes. Cureus [Internet]. 2021 Aug 17 [cited 2026 Jan 10]; Available from: https://www.cureus.com/articles/66514-therapeutic-effect-of-sunflower-seeds-and-flax-seeds-on-diabetes
Ellenberg M. Diabetic Complications Without Manifest Diabetes: Complications as Presenting Clinical Symptoms. JAMA [Internet]. 1963 Mar 16 [cited 2026 Jan 10];183(11). Available from: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1963.03700110058011
Tomic D, Shaw JE, Magliano DJ. The burden and risks of emerging complications of diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2022 Sept;18(9):525–39.
Choi YJ, Chung YS. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and bone fragility: Special focus on bone imaging. Osteoporos Sarcopenia. 2016 Mar;2(1):20–4.
Clark WF, Kortas C, Heidenheim AP, Garland J, Spanner E, Parbtani A. Flaxseed in Lupus Nephritis: A Two-Year Nonplacebo-Controlled Crossover Study. J Am Coll Nutr. 2001 Apr;20(2):143–8.
Hursting SD, Thornquist M, Henderson MM. Types of dietary fat and the incidence of cancer at five sites. Prev Med. 1990 May;19(3):242–53.
Talom RT, Judd SA, McIntosh DD, McNeill JR. High flaxseed (linseed) diet restores endothelial function in the mesenteric arterial bed of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Life Sci. 1999 Mar;64(16):1415–25.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Suraj Hirekar, Solanke Sohani, Katre Bhumika, Chaudhari Tanuja, More Ankita, Pawar Siddhi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
AUTHORS WHO PUBLISH WITH THIS JOURNAL AGREE TO THE FOLLOWING TERMS:
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 Unported License. that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
. 